Carmen Black, MD, Emma Lo, MD, and Keith Gallagher, MD
Violence perpetrated against unarmed patients is common in health care, and evidence-based safety measures are needed to acknowledge and eradicate clinical violence.
AMA J Ethics. 2022;24(3):E218-225. doi:
10.1001/amajethics.2022.218.
When patients are unable to express their wishes and do not have surrogates or advance directives, which and whose values should inform decision making for them? We discuss ethical complexities of caring for unrepresented patients.