State of the Art and Science
Sep 2024
Mikalah Singer, JD, LLM and Aysha Akhtar, MD, MPH
Historically, most discussions about nonhuman animal experimentation consider what has become known as the 3 R’s: refinement, reduction, and replacement.
AMA J Ethics. 2024;26(9):E701-708. doi:
10.1001/amajethics.2024.701.