We currently have no simple test of any kind that tells us whether someone has pain, but there is reason to be optimistic that brain imaging that can contribute to evaluation of pain may be within our grasp.
The WHO Clinical Staging System for HIV/AIDS allows physicians in resource-limited settings to make clinical decisions based on patient clinical features instead of laboratory tests.
Historically, most discussions about nonhuman animal experimentation consider what has become known as the 3 R’s: refinement, reduction, and replacement.
AMA J Ethics. 2024;26(9):E701-708. doi:
10.1001/amajethics.2024.701.