The AMA Code of Medical Ethics’ opinions related to patient information and involvement of surrogate decision makers such as family in ICU decisions.

A physician may withhold information from a patient if he believes that he is acting in accordance with the patient’s wishes and best interests.

When family members disagree with a patient about care planning, the physician might be able to facilitate a resolution.

Family-centered care is recommended for patients of all ages now, based on evidence that it can lead to compliance, improved communication, and better care planning. Hospitals where PFCC has been integrated report greater satisfaction among patients and staff.

The Patient- and Family-Centered Care Methodology and Practice follows six steps to improve clinical results and accountability and to reduce costs.

New regulations governing informed consent might not be advantageous.

In 2014, the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health published proposals to expand clinical trial registration requirements and to promote sharing of clinical research data, but these and other efforts at improving data transparency and access need to be supported by changes in the academic reward structure and significant funding.

Ethical questions in clinical research have evolved with cultural and technological innovations.

The FDA’s expanded access pathway allows patients with no other therapeutic options to request access to investigational agents, but manufacturers do not often grant it.

Clinical equipoise—the idea that the community of medical experts is uncertain about the relative therapeutic merits of the arms of a clinical trial at its outset—mitigates physicians’ responsibility for patients’ poor outcomes when patients are assigned to the control arm or are harmed by an investigational agent.