Clinicians should know how randomized controlled trials can and cannot contribute to advancing health equity for transgender and gender diverse people.

Humans make critical decisions about nonhuman lab animals outside the lab: during breeding, transportation, and end-of-study protocols.

Ethically justifying human-centered research with only nonhuman animals as subjects likely requires that the research’s benefits to humans must, at least, outweigh harms suffered by the nonhuman animals.

Historically, most discussions about nonhuman animal experimentation consider what has become known as the 3 R’s: refinement, reduction, and replacement.

Since its beginning, the AMA Journal of Ethics has grown into a distinct, editorially independent, peer-reviewed publication that illuminates complex questions and ideas often overlooked by traditional ethics curricula.

Whether and to what extent constitutional equal protection should apply to some nonhuman animals can be considered in light of corporations having gained such protection.

How to amend the 3 R’s has been driven mainly by philosophical ethics approaches to nonhuman animal rights and by scientific advancement.

Nonhuman animals used in biomedical research frequently suffer and are harmed as part of their use as experimental models.

A transition to organoids and organ-on-a-chip technologies would signal a paradigm shift in biomedical research.

Nonhuman animals have long been and continue to be routinely used in biomedical and behavioral research to promote human health.